Star Trek A Chronicle Essay Example For Students

Star Trek: A Chronicle Essay Star Trek: A ChronicleSpace the final frontier. These are the voyages of the Starship Enterprise. Its continuing mission: to explore strange new worlds.. . to seek out new life and new civilizations We will write a custom essay on Star Trek: A Chronicle specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now to boldly go where no one has gone before The above blurb has been used to introduce the television show Star Trek: The Next Generation. The shows run has elapsed that of its predecessor, the original Star Trek. The original spawned six movies and endless conventions, and both have given way to action figures for children, national clubs, and other various paraphernalia. This is the chronicle to end all chronicles: the full analysis and timeline of one of the most popular television programs in contemporary American history. Americans are fascinated with the possibility of intelligent life somewhere else in the universe; this has been displayed in books and plays and movies too numerous to mention, not to mention the accounts of everyday people who say that they have encountered aliens and unidentified flying objects (UFOs). This fascination became so great that in the late 1970s, President Carter decided to launch an investigation within NASA (the National Aeronautics and Space Administration) to uncover the mystery of UFOs and intelligent life in the universe. Science fiction plays upon this obsession. The great science fiction writers have sent our imaginations into overload with scores of stories to tell. The two most popular futuristic science fiction stories, Star Trek and Star Wars, both have similar characteristics. Both involve many different species of life (our nearest equivalent would be races). The Ferengi, Vulcans, humans, Betazoids, Klingons, Romulans, Cardassians, androids, and Bjorans are in the Star Trek series (which includes the original television series, the six movies, the NextGeneration television series, and the television series Deep Space Nine), while the Star Wars movie trilogy includes humans, Wookies, Jawas, Ewoks, droids, Tusken Raiders, and a host of various other strange and exotic looking lifeforms. Each species has its own heritage, customs, beliefs, and socioeconomic status. I am sure that each science fiction storyline has its own unusual breed of lifeform, but this paper will examine only a particular science fiction storyline which has mushroomed into a cultural obsession. I choose not to focus on the works of Ray Bradbury and the like; Im sure that they are superb writers. (A fantastic example is Bradburys A Sound of Thunder, which is the probable predecessor to all of todays hype surrounding the film Jurassic Park and the childrens character Barney the dinosaur.) However, Ive never heard of a Ray Bradbury convention, or action figures based on characters hes created. Star Trek appeared in the right place at the right time. It was the middle of the 1960s, an extremely vibrant decade which primarily transformed America from a quiet-yet-strong idealism with do-or-die patriotism to a wild and eccentric liberal age, exhibiting imaginations let loose from the taboos and inhibitions of the era of World War II and the 1950s. The 1960s are difficult to describe briefly; Id do a better job in another whole paper. However, major contributing factors that made the 1960s what they were included Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, assassinations of President Kennedy, Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King (among others), the music revolution (which was symbolized and brought to a head at Woodstock), the Vietnam war, and the space program. Not to mention (to quote Dave Barry) 42 hillion jillion other things. But it was the space program (which was President Kennedys dream), along with American curiosity of UFOs, that gave Star Trek a nearly guaranteed fan base. Having completed the Mercury 7 shift, NASA was in full gear with the Gemini spaceproject when Star Trek premiered on television sets across the country. It told the tale of a time (nobody knew if it was the future, the present, or the past nobody knew exactly when the stories took place in reference to our time here on Earth, because the time sequences were given in a mysterious-sounding five-digit stardate) in space with a governing body called Starfleet, and the vessel of focus was an exploratory starship named the Enterprise. The characters of the show were the ships main personnel: Captain James Tiberius Kirk and his crew. All of the signifiers that these characters displayed in the original series have been distorted to such a degree in certain circles that sometimes they have completely lost the original characterization of the fictional person. An illustration is that of slashzines, which are pseudo-condescending fanzines (which is a magazine focused solely on a cultural obsession), which usually includes fictional homoeroticism. The term slashzines comes from the way the stories are classified. For example, K/S (read: Kirk slash Spock) stories deal with stories of Captain Kirk and Mr. Spock engaging in homosexual sex. The original television series lasted for about three years, then fizzled out. Until the early 1980s. Star Trek: The Movie came out at this time, right at the peak of the Star Wars fame (the second movie of the trilogy, The Empire Strikes Back, was released in 1980, and the final film of the saga, The Return of the Jedi, came out in 1983. ) Any hint of competition between these two thrillingly entertaining science fiction storylines would occur at this juncture in time. The sequel to the movie, Star Trek II: The Wrath of Khan, enjoyed the same level of success that the first did, and throughout the next ten years following this film, the Star Trek series would be reborn through the countless movies and a resurgence of the television series. The 1980s also saw a rather unusual phenomenon: the Trekkie convention. Trekkiesare people obsessed with the show and all of the paraphernalia associated with it. .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a , .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .postImageUrl , .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a , .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:hover , .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:visited , .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:active { border:0!important; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:active , .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8f1e48ecb71ce2276d4bda5cd051e77a:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Should Highschool Athletes Be Drug Tested Essay These people were the true and dedicated fan base; they watched every episode loyally, memorized whole scripts and show trivia (including personal data of the characters which had to be fabricated by the writers because of either demand or excess creativity), bought action figures and countless books on the Starship Enterprise and the crew (one book I recall seeing gave a complete detail of everything on the ship, from bathrooms to living quarters to engines to loading bays), and attended lectures and formed their own regional clubs (also called Starships). Part of what makes Star Trek a cultural obsession is its alluring, al most mysterious quality. This quality is inherent in one case, because the base of the show and the storyline covers a possible solution to the contemporary Americans wonder of the great beyond: is there other intelligent life in the universe? (A bumper sticker parodies this as well: Beam me up Scotty: theres no intelligent life down here.) Also, some of the things that the shows actors do outside the show are of interest. William Shatner, the actor who played Kirk in the original series and all of the movies, has been stereotyped as the perennial bad actor, overacting every one of his lines. Many people can imitate and do an impression of Kirk. Leonard Nimoy, the Mr. Spock on the original series and six films, turned to directing, and has done quite well; a recent notable achievement was Three Men and a Baby. (On a brief sidenote, most of the actors on the original series have made brief cameo appearances either on Star Trek: The Next Generation as their original characters an example is James Doohan, who played Scotty, the engineer or in a similar context in another show, such as the actress who played Uhura, who appeared as herself on Head of the Class, an ABC situation comedyset in a high school.) Patrick Stewart, who plays Captain Jean-Luc Picard on The Next Generation series of the television show, was a Shakespearean actor before auditioning for the part. I have seen him play Claudius in Hamlet; he was extraordinarily good. Brent Spiner, who plays Audio Animatronic-like android Lieutenant Commander Data on the newer . . series, recently did a musical album entitled Old Yellow Eyes Is Back. The title parodies Frank Sinatra (Old Blue Eyes) and the character Spiner plays; he dons yellow contact lenses as part of his android costume. One of the songs on the album features his fellow co-stars as backup singers. A final note belongs to Wil Wheaton, who plays Ensign Wesley Crusher (and son to Dr. Crusher, the ships doctor) on The Next Generation. He had already acquired some semblance of fame as the lead in the flick Stand By Me. However, Wesley has also been stereotyped as a whining child in a teenagers body who sulks in his quarters whenever he doesnt get what he wants. The show has been so popular and so stereotyped that the parodies it has endured run into countless numbers. But most of the Star Trek parodies we are familiar with are those on the accessible media: radio and television. The NBC late-night comedy show Saturday Night Live has done it at least twice; one with the late 1970s cast (which had John Belushi at the ships helm), and another time when William Shatner himself hosted the program, where the ship had turned into a restaurant of sorts. (I distinctly remember Dana Carvey playing some character out to get Kirk by listing sanitary problems with his restaurant. I can hear it now. .. No sneeze-guard on the salad bar!) Furthermore (possibly on the same show, because I don;t think he hosted the show more than once), a skit about a Star Trek convention was produced, and the convention was especially lucky because William Shatner, nearly considered a god to these die-hard Trekkies, wouldactually be speaking at the convention. In his speech, he says that he is sick and tired of all this nonsense and tells all the Trekkies to get a life. (Some say this skit is the origination of that particular phrase.) He asks one Trekkie in particular, who looks like the stereotypical nerd and wears a T-shirt that says I Grock Spock (and who knows what that means), after guessing his age to be about 30, if he had ever kissed a girl. He shies away and looks embarrassed. He does the same to others, lashing out at their eccentric fetish, screaming I mean, its just a TV show! Then some angry suit whispers something into his ear, and he returns to the podium, looking red in the face and apologizes to the crowd, saying that was what the evil Captain Kirk would have said, had he been here today. He was just pulling your collective leg, ha ha ha, now live long and prosper, and hell see you on the bridge. A funny song called Star Trekkin' was created by a band called The Firm (not to be confused with a rock band of the same name). The chorus was: Star trekkin across the universe, on the Starship Enterprise, with old Captain Kirk.. .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 , .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .postImageUrl , .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 , .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:hover , .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:visited , .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:active { border:0!important; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:active , .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2 .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u06f09041a95f985e3c589e5ea7fc2ba2:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Scaffold Scenes in the Scarlet Letter Essay. Star trekkin across the universe, boldly going forward cause we cant find reverse. The song received heavy airplay on The Dr. Demento Show, a radio program which only played really bizarre and funny tunes. All the verses of the song were the repetition of classic lines used in the original series, such as: Theres sic Klingons on the starboard bound, Jim You cannot change the laws of physics, Jim Scotty, beam me up! Its life, Jim, but not as we know it, Captain Its worse than that hes dead, Jim! The above phrases are but a few in the vernacular of the shows history. A few others are Onscreen (which has been used in both the original and The Next Generation series),Make it so and Engage, used exclusively by Jean-Luc Picard on the newer show, and Thank you, number one, also used exclusively by Picard to his right-hand man, William Riker. The uses of computers and networking have allowed many people (including college students) access to a wealth of information about nearly anything a worldwide computer library, if you will and the possibility to hold conversations across the globe. A lot of information for this paper was retrieved from the computer networks, and a minuscule fraction o f it has newsgroups and permanent computer discussions which parody Star Trek in every imaginable way. For example, a computer news group system exists on the network where one can read postings by people across the globe on numerous topics, ranging from music to jokes to sports to sex to television. There are (at last count) over twelve hundred groups. Nine del with Star Trek in one way or another. Some of the names of these groups include alt. startrek.creative, rec.arts.startrek, rec. arts.startrek.fandom, rec.arts. startrek.info, rec.arts.startrek. reviews, and rec.arts.startrek.tech. (The computer network is in itself part of what Star Trek is all about: the show has the ability to communicate nearly anything in its known universe in a matter of seconds. Once I sent a piece of electronic mail a.k.a. e-mailto a student at the University of California at Berkeley; he said he received it in under five minutes. Sure beats the postal service, and it even beats Federal Express. Those who are obsessed with the show and the image it projects upon society sometimes like to dress the part; this is the marketability (and the subsequent financial success) of the image. The show does offer uniforms, insignia, posters, hats, and other paraphernalia to the public through mail order catalogs and fanzines. My friend James (whose computer account name, by the way, is Enterprise) has a lapel pin which is used on the show for intraship communication. He loyally wears it on the vest he wears while working. Many Star Trek discussions have sprung up in recent times comparing Old Generation characters to their Next Generation counterparts, leading almost to a shouting match between those who hold the original series near and dear to their hearts, and those who have jumped on The Next Generation bandwagon in recent years (like myself). Comparisons between Kirk and Picard, Spock and Data, Scotty and LaForge, and Bones and Crusher are many and varied. An example of a main difference between different characters in like positions in different television series is that of the desires of the resident brains: Mr. Spock and Lieutenant Commander Data. Spock, being half Vulcan, shuns emotions and feelings, although his other half is human. Spock is caught between two forces. Data, on the other hand, is an android, a computer which looks human, who wishes to become human (the Pinocchio theory). This comparison is blown wide open when Nimoy makes a rare cameo appearance on an episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation, and he holds a conversation with Data which covers the above. A final bit of information about this cultural obsession involves actual use of the showin real life. In the movie Star Trek III: The Search for Spock, the Klingon language was partially invented and used in the film. English subtitles were used when Klingons were conversing in their native tongue. A linguist somewhere in America got a hold of an idea, and began long talks with the people behind the scenes of Star Trek: The Next Generation concerning the full invention and implementation of a real Klingon language. The Klingon language now does exist, and it holds the odd distinction of being the first artificial language created solely from the field of entertainment. Glossaries and dictionaries are in print, and the language consists of a lot of guttural and groaning sounds, along with difficult consonant combinations that would cause any American to emit saliva in an outward direction while attempting to talk in this truly original language. The Klingon language has rules of grammar, spelling, and the alphabet looks more like an Oriental language than Cyrillic. Therefore, the true die-hard Trekkie can actually use something in his quest for Star Trek Nirvana. To conclude this paper, I will prove that Star Trek is a cultural obsession. Some of the information gathered for this paper came from a few friends with their few various thoughts, and the small amount of information I got from my computer account. However, the bulk of information came from my memory and personal experience. And I dont even speak Klingon.

Paleontology and The Evolutionary Theory

Paleontology and The Evolutionary Theory Introduction Paleontology is a wide field of study that is filled with a long and fascinating past and â€Å"an even more intriguing and hopeful future† (UCMP, n.d, p.1). A large number of people think that this field involves just the study of fossils but it is much more than this. According to UCMP (n.d), paleontology is defined as â€Å"the study of what fossils tell us about the ecologies of the past, about evolution, and about our place in the world† (UCMP, n.d, p.1).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Paleontology and The Evolutionary Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This field of study takes in knowledge from other fields such as anthropology, biology, and computer science as well among others, in order to have the understanding of the processes which have contributed to the coming about and ultimate destruction of the various kinds of living organisms, beginning from the time life s tarted. The field of paleontology is traditionally broken down into a number of sub-disciplines and these include; palynology, vertebrate paleontology, invertebrate paleontology, micropaleontology, paleobotany, human paleontology, paleocology, taphonomy, and ichnology (UCMP, n.d, p.1). In this paper, the discipline of paleontology is going to be explored and the main concern will be on looking at paleontology and how it relates to the Darwin’s evolutionary theory. In the discussion, the background information on the fossil record is going to be given and this will be followed by the main discussion on paleontology and the evolutionary theory. The conclusion section will give a summary of the discussion. Fossil Record Before embarking on the main discussion, we need to consider what the fossil record is because the discussion is going to be based on this to some extent. The fossil record is defined as â€Å"the collective accumulation of artefacts which have been fossilized a ll over the world† (Fossil record, 2003, p.1). When looked at as a whole, there can be offering of very interesting information by the fossil record concerning how life evolved on earth. The scientists can make a decision to engage in studying the fossil record in its entirety or may chose to go to a specific period, in an effort to get information about the earth’s history and the living organisms that dwelt on it (Fossil record, 2003). A large number of fossils, amounting to millions, which are found in rocks, exhibit forms of evolution through time and also exhibit a large number of transitions that take place in species. In the year 1831, Charles Darwin commenced on assembling a huge bulk of evidence and in turn engaged in assessing and analysing it for over one and a half decades before keenly deducing a fresh rule of â€Å"descent of organisms with no modification† (Calabro, 2000, p.1).Advertising Looking for research paper on archeology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The fossil record is clear on the evolution of life beginning from simple forms of life to complex forms ones. The fossil record has been seen as having been very important in the development of the evolutionary theory by Darwin. However, it was pointed out that the fossil record was incomplete and Darwin criticized it for the weaknesses associated with it (Calabro, 2000). Paleontology and the Evolutionary Theory According to Sepkoski (2008), there exists a direct relationship between the health of a scientific discipline and the quality of its data sources. The discipline of paleontology â€Å"has a rich source of data in the fossil record†(Sepkoski, 2008, p.27). However, there has been contradictions in opinions in the course of time in regard to the completeness of the fossil record and the sufficiency it has for making conclusions on the evolutionary trends and patterns (Sepkoski, 2008). In t he more recent times, experts in the field of paleontology have had enthusiasm about the fossil record quality and there has been optimism about its approximations and the completeness it has (Benton, 2003; Jablonski et al., 2003, Foote Sepkoski, 1999). However, In the course of the last one century or even more, after Darwin’s ‘Origin of Species’ publication, there was strict hindering of the capability of paleontologists to take part fully in the discussions concerning the evolutionary theory by perceptions that, â€Å"the fossil record was not a complete or reliable source of data† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.27). While paleontology developed its professional distinctiveness in the course of the 1900s, the critical task for the experts in this field was to set up the sufficiency of the data they had to give answers to questions raised about the authenticity of the contributions made by paleontology to the evolutionary theory. This program involved carrying out determination of the appropriate connection between paleontology and the biology and geology fields, which are its very intimately related sister disciplines. It is pointed out that, in the absence of this backing on behalf of its data, â€Å"paleontology might never have claimed a place at the ‘high table’ of evolutionary biology, and the modern discipline of paleobiology might never have existed† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.27). During the start of the 1800s, at a time paleontology methodology and discipline orientation were coming up, the current fields of science as we now know them were not there. In the year 1859, such a term as ‘biology’ was at that time still a relatively new innovation and even Charles Darwin himself did not utilize it in any of his editions of â€Å"Origin of Species† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.27). At that time, the term ‘paleontology’ was in general use.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample o n Paleontology and The Evolutionary Theory specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the scientists, Charles Lyell, during that period gave a definition of this term as â€Å"’the science which treats fossil remains; both animal and vegetable’ .but it would have been quite unusual for a scientist to identify solely as ‘paleontologist’ or even ‘a geologist† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.28). Hence, the paleontology professional position, especially when compared with the biology field, is a debatable issue in the course of the time those fields had turned out to be generally recognized as independent fields. However, it is pointed out that the geological as well as paleontological evidence were of great significance to Charles Darwin in setting up the evolutionary theory (Sepkoski, 2008). This was mainly for the reason that the fossil record historical evidence made it possible for him to present arguments for chron ological evolutionary succession. In the initial edition of the Origin and those that followed, Darwin engaged in the extensive discussions about the importance of fossil succession, and it is not to overstate by pointing out that paleontology was a backbone of the argument he presented for evolution. However, it is pointed out that Charles Darwin’s conservative evaluation of the fossil record completeness hindered the capacity of the paleontologists that came thereafter to totally engage in joining in the development of the evolutionary biology community (Sepkoski, 2008,). Among the greatest fears was the idea that â€Å"the ‘incompleteness’ of the fossil record would be used to criticize his theory† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.28). The dilemma that Darwin faced, then, was that he was concurrently needed and faced embarrassment caused by the paleontological evidence found in the fossil record. As on one hand Darwin almost surely had no intentions of diminishing th e status of paleontology, on the other hand, the diagnosis he undertook of the limitations which the fossil record had, had precisely that effect for almost a century after the Origin publication. Darwin wrote about the weaknesses in the fossil record. Whilst he presented the case that the fossil data were essential for a clear understanding of the organic history, he pointed out that â€Å"the absence of transitional forms between species is an inherent and insoluble problem for paleontologists and geologists† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.28). However, it is pointed out that the theory presented by Darwin of evolution brought in a revolution in paleontology for the reason that the fossil record turned out to be the only possible source of evidence that evolution had actually taken place. In the absence of evolution, paleontology just â€Å"made interesting, descriptive observations about the form and distribution of once living creatures; without paleontology, there is no concrete ev idence that evolution happened† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.29).Advertising Looking for research paper on archeology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More But paleontology, on its own, could not independently contribute towards the theory of evolution because this theory relied on evidence which came from such fields as geology, biology and heredity among other fields in order to bring meaning to the paleontological data (Sepkoski, 2008). This means that, in the absence of the theory of evolution to paleontology, this field of study (paleontology) could not find a solution to issues concerning the organic nature history; it called for the Darwin’s theory of evolution to carry out the contextualization of the contributions it had made while excusing its shortcomings. Darwin had relatively pointed out that paleontology had already offered all it was possibly to give to having understanding of evolution. Therefore, for those who supported Darwin, there existed no immense necessity to examine the fossil record. In actual fact, those who supported Darwin were much more likely to have a wish to engage in pushing â€Å"paleontology i nto the background† (Sepkoski, 2008, p.29). For instance, Colman (1971) presents an argument that â€Å"to the biologist that fossil record posed more problems than it resolvedthe incompleteness of the recovered fossil record, in which a relatively full historical record for any major group was still lacking, was the very curse of transmutationist† (p.66). Hunt (2010), also citing the weakness in the fossil record as diagnosed by Darwin, points out that; in responding to the lack of â€Å"absence of species-levels transformation† within the fossil records, Darwin presented an argument that that â€Å"the fossil record was too incomplete, too biased, and too poorly known to provide strong evidence against his theory† (Hunt, 2010, p.61). Hunt (2010), in his research, carried out the evaluation of this view of the fossil record in light of a period of one and a half century of the paleontological research that followed. He points out that even if the assessme nt carried out by Darwin of the â€Å"completeness and resolution of fossiliferous rocks was in several ways astute† Hunt (2010, p.61), in the current day, there is much better exploration of the fossil record and there is also better documentation and understanding of this record than the way it was way back in the year 1859 (Hunt, 2010). More specifically, a logical big set of studies which seek to trace â€Å"evolutionary trajectories within species can now be brought to bear on Darwin’s expectation of gradual change driven by natural selection†(Hunt, 2010, p.61). Conclusion As it has been looked at in the discussion above, it can be concluded that, paleontology is a very wide discipline and has been there for a long time. This discipline has played a very important role in the evolutionary theory, which was set up by Charles Darwin. The fossil record enabled Charles Darwin to develop this theory. But over time, different views have come up concerning the com pleteness of the fossil record and its satisfactoriness for drawing conclusions on the evolutionary trends and patterns. For instance, Darwin’s conservative assessment of the completeness of the fossil record hindered the capability of the successive paleontologists to entirely engage in joining in the development of the evolutionary biology community. However, it is important to note that Darwin’s evolutionary theory caused a revolution in the field of paleontology and this was because the fossil record turned out to be the only available source of evidence that indicated that evolution had actually occurred. Yet paleontology, standing alone as an independent field, could not contribute to the theory of evolution and this is for the reason that this theory relied on evidence that was obtained from other fields which include the biology, geology and heredity fields or disciplines among others in order to make the paleontological data to turn out to be of significance. References Benton, M. J. (2003). The quality of the fossil record. London, England: Taylor Francis. Calabro, T. (2000). The fossil record and evolution. Retrieved from https://carnegiemuseums.org/ Coleman, W. (1971). Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation. New York, NY: Wiley. Foote, M. J. Sepkoski, J. (1999). Absolute measures of the completeness of the fossil record. Nature, 398(6726), 415-417 Fossil record (2003) Retrieved from https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-the-fossil-record.htm Hunt, G. (2010). Evolution in fossil lineages: Paleontology and the origin of species. The American Naturalist, 176 (1), 61 – 76. Jablonski, D. R. Kaustuv, J. W. Valentine, R. M. Price, Anderson, P.S. (2003). The impact of the pull of the recent on the history of marine diversity. Science, 300(5622),1133-1135. Sepkoski, D. (2008). Evolutionary paleontology and the fossil record: A historical introduction. Wilmington, NC: University of North Carolina Press. UCMP. (n.d). What is paleontology?. Retrieved from https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/paleo/paleowhat.html

Get Help Filling out the FAFSA Application

Get Help Filling out the FAFSA Application Applying for a student loan from the U.S. Department of Education is free. The application, called the FAFSA, stands for Free Application for Federal Student Aid and may be found on the website  fafsa.gov. The FAFSA can be a complicated form to fill out, and there was once an online service called Student Financial Aid Services, Inc. which helped students complete the complicated form for a fee. This service is no longer available but there are other solutions out there. FAFSA Services Available There are services available to help you fill out your FAFSA, however, the governments FAFSA site warns students that they dont have to pay to apply for a student loan from the government. There are scams out there but there are also legitimate services that can make your life a whole lot easier. Some ways to get assistance include: Exploring the resources available directly from the fafsa.ed.gov websiteVisiting your colleges office of student financial assistance or calling your university directlyAsking for help from your high school guidance counselor or college prep teacherHiring a professional, certified college aid planner from the National Institute of Certified College Planners, or an organization such as  CollegeAidPlanning.com How FAFSA Helpers Aid Students When scholarship scams were more prevalent, it was believed that â€Å"any help that you pay for can be received free from your school or Federal Student Aid. People often objected to paying a professional to prepare the federal student aid application, despite the 137 questions being more complex than most income tax forms, which they were likely to hire a tax consultant for. Neither high schools,  colleges nor the federal student aid telephone help desk has enough trained experts available to assist all college-bound and college students with their financial aid needs. No service is free as the federal help desk and high school counselors are paid with your tax dollars. College financial aid administrator’s salaries are covered by students’ tuition and fees charged. College financial aid offices help their students answer aid application questions, but they don’t have enough trained people or hours in the day to prepare every student’s federal student aid application. The Complexity of Filling out the Form Many people find the federal student aid form to be complex or too time-consuming to do themselves. College-bound students are sometimes unable to turn to a college financial aid administrator for help because they are not members of a college yet. While high school counselors at public and private schools offer college prep guidance, the great majority have no financial aid training nor the time to help every college-bound student prepare their application. The federal student aid helpline will answer individual questions but not advise on an individual’s specific circumstances. Recently, the federal government offered one-on-one phone service to several states on a limited basis. The FAFSA helpline is not open 24/7, such as on weekends and nights, when parents are likely to prepare their children’s FAFSA. Guidance From Student Financial Aid Services Student Financial Aid Services is available at least seventeen hours a day during peak aid application filing times. There is no limit on how often a client calls or how many people from an individual family are spoken to. Fees are relatively modest, ranging from $80 to $100 for a year, and a 100% money back guarantee is offered within sixty days of purchase. Advisors are rigorously trained and catch mistakes that even the Department of Education’s computer misses–mistakes that can deprive students of aid. Their job is to accurately prepare an application and advise clients so they receive the most aid possible, and they currently hold a 99% client recommendation rating. No legitimate FAFSA preparer charges for submitting the form. Fees are for the advice and expertise. The student financial aid system is complicated, as there are nine federal, 605 state,  and about 8,000 college programs each with their own deadlines and rules. All of this information is tracked including policy decisions, rule changes, and more. Disclosures U.S. law does authorize paid FAFSA preparation and the only condition is that a paid FAFSA preparer posts in all of their marketing and on their website that their commercial business is not the Department of Education. The website www.fafsa.com is a domain name the company founder, a college admissions administrator, purchased before the Department of Education had a FAFSA website. For transparency, the following is to be noted: The home page displays in a clear and conspicuous manner a notice that â€Å"We are not affiliated with the Dept. of Education.†The home page also states clearly that FAFSA can be filed for free, can be completed via paper or electronic form, and that professional assistance is not a requirement. It also states that the free service is available at www.fafsa.ed.gov.In the center of the home page, it is stated prominently that the website is the oldest and largest student aid advisory service and there is a fee for the service.Visitors are informed about the free FAFSA option in seventeen other prominent places on the website, and in total, forty-seven links are provided to www.fafsa.ed.gov.On every single page of the website, a disclaimer is included that says the website is not the Department of Education or FAFSA on the web. A link is provided to www.fafsa.ed.gov.The website provides a simple and clear side-by-side comparison of services that differ from the Department of Ed ucation and explicitly notes that the website is a paid service, and also notes that people can prepare the form themselves and file it for free on the other site. Every caller is informed that there is a free FAFSA option and that the FAFSA can be completed without professional help.In the â€Å"About Us† section of the  website, it is clearly stated, â€Å"Student Financial Aid Services, Inc. is a fee-based preparation and advisory company† and the role is outlined.In all of the marketing communications and sales materials, information about the free FAFSA option is included.

Report Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 24

Report - Essay Example He provides examples of early studies such as the Technology Acceptance Model developed by Davis in 1989 meant to provide explanations of the behavioral intention of a potential user in technological innovation (He and Lee, 2012). They continue to provide the example of the 1991 study by Compeau and Higgins who based their investigation of people’s perspectives on technology adoption on diffusion of innovations (He and Lee, 2012). Despite previous studies, the authors indicate that a solid conclusion concerning the different attitudes between the male and female use of information technology systems remains elusive. Most studies only offer significant and insignificant conclusions about the matter. The article insists that gender is a significant demographic factor that influences an individual’s reaction to technology. The study in the article utilizes self-efficacy as the main dependent variable for two reasons. Self-efficacy is a core element of social cognitive theory and is recognized as a major factor that regulates an individual’s computer habits. Secondly, fundamental state of psychology directs the attitude and decisions made in IT adoption by influencing factors like the perception of ease of use. The study then uses the variable to test the impact of the learning process on gender and the formation of attitudes that affects an individual’s confidence in the use of computers. Self-efficacy defines the personal belief of an individual in his ability to complete a task. The findings indicate that women’s self-efficacy in the use of computers in less than that of men. The female students in the study had limited computer knowledge and fewer computing interactions. Additionally, they were more likely to have high anxiety levels about computer usage compared to the male st udents. Finally, compared to male students,

The Contemporary Implications of Downsizing and Globalisation for the Essay

The Contemporary Implications of Downsizing and Globalisation for the Global Company and Workforce - Essay Example But downsizing might be unsuccessful if applied without consideration of globalisation. Integrating a global culture into the organisational foundation is the task confronting all companies wanting to survive in the contemporary global economy (Marmolejo 2012). A number of firms with extensive experience in the global economy, such as Gillette, have gained knowledge of making global culture an element of the company’s standard operations (Hassard et al. 2009). This essay discusses the reasons companies employ downsizing and integrate globalisation into their operations, and the implications of these strategies for work and daily life in economically developed countries. Downsizing and Globalisation in Organisations Even for the highly developed organisations on the international arena, the growth of major economic organisations creates concerns, like how to successfully bring together downsizing and globalisation. Can a downsized company, for instance, cope with technologies i nclined towards globalisation? For every company, the development of the markets continuously renews concerns for global integration. In a thriving economic state, the movement towards globalisation necessitates a focused and sustained willpower. ... one of the fundamental premises of globalisation, the capacity to downsize globally or, more specifically, the justification of downsizing by a global perspective. Developments with regard to global integration and competition, industrial streamlining, and trade agreements have permanently transformed business activities for the almost all managers. A particular implication for managers is the currently widespread adoption of organisational downsizing. Downsizing has been especially widespread among electronic or technology firms nowadays (De Meuse 2004). Nevertheless, downsizing affects every venture that aims for competitive advantage through cutting of costs. There are two main situations where downsizing could be essential. The first takes place in organisations that are burdened with unproductive assets or constantly failing units. They must figure out whether to sell them to those who can transform these assets into something productive (Gandolfi 2006). The second situation tak es place when jobs depend on obsolete technology, such as newspaper companies. Nevertheless, wholesale ‘slash-and-burn’ strategies, like blanket employee downsizing, rarely result in lasting advantages in profits, efficiency, etc (Gandolfi 2006). Downsizing-- which started in the latter part of 1980s as a desperate, never-to-be-repeated strategy to significantly reduce costs to aid companies in competing globally or in surviving major failures in their operations-- has currently become a mainstay in the global economic arena. There exists a strong interconnection between the three major motivators for downsizing, namely, customer demands, latest technology, and global competition, as well as customer-oriented policies and information-based marketing (Blackburn 1999). Particular

Racial Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System | Essay

Racial Discrimination in the Criminal Justice System | Essay Abstract The importance of recognizing the fundamental concepts of issues in the Canadian criminal justice system is critical in the illustration of justice to minorities predominately Blacks and Aboriginal. Blacks and Aboriginals have been challenged socially, economically and politically. In examining the Canadian criminal justice system, it can be concluded there are many complications in attempting to justify the outcome of a case. It is imperative to recognize if the Canadian judicial system is simply responsible for the over representation of Blacks and Aboriginals in the justice system. This paper will further examine and critically analyze the flaws of the justice system. The processes of prosecuting an offender sometimes rely on the jurors. The importance of selecting jury needs to be further addressed. Thus, this paper will examine different aspects of the Canadian criminal justice system in relation to the existence of racial discrimination. The foundation of Canada was formed by the Aboriginals continuing to the colonial revolution to become a multicultural country. However the diverse races that are existent in Canada have been in conflict. Racism has lingered for countless years wherein complete abolishment will be unsuccessful providing marginalization and stereotypes are existent in society. It is noteworthy to recognize the race-related injustice minorities experience within the criminal justice system. Though the different systems and procedures in the criminal justice system are designed to protect society, minorities are often challenged with stigmatization. Evidence from the Canadian society indicates an over representation of minorities within the criminal justice system to the extent that there are concerns regarding wrongful convictions such as Donald Marshall, Jr. Prevalent oppression of these races lead to the failure of the justice system to be a reliable source of integrity to citizens, failing to build confidence. This paper will discuss the importance of fair and equal treatment in the justice system. The failure to recognize the injustice minorities encounter often results in the constant practice of systemic discrimination. Discriminatory practices such as racial discrimination and racial profiling are still prevalent within the Canadian Criminal Justice System. The significance of addressing this issue is having an impartial mindset in the judicial system when a minority is convicted. This issue can be addressed as systemic discrimination leading to the over representation of Black and Aboriginal in prisons in Canada. The key areas I will focus on are: the white dominated jury selection in trials involving minorities. I will examine if the criminal cases are a result of systemic discriminatory practices or if it is the complications within those cases. In addition I will also analyze the reason why there is an over representation of Blacks and Aboriginals within the Criminal Justice System and if Canada violates the legislated human rights identified under the Charter of Rights and Freedoms and possibly the Criminal Code. This paper will consist of various studies conducted to examine whether racial discrimination is existent in society. Many studies have been conducted to determine if racial prejudice is present through arrests and court systems resulting in the over population of the prisons. In this paper I will analyze various sources of literature review, reports, articles, cases, theories and studies to enhance my arguments and persuade the reader to implement solutions to help reduce the partial treatment in all levels of the criminal justice system. By addressing the fundamental issue in society it raises awareness of the possible solutions that can be addressed. This is a topic of interest as I can relate as a minority. I hope to limit the partial practices in the Criminal Justice System. The analysis of criminal court cases such as R. v. Williams (1998), R. v. Khan (2004), R. v. Marshall (1971) will support my arguments regarding existing mistreatment of ethnic minorities with the Canadian criminal justice system. I will also discuss that stigmatization of blacks and Aboriginals are still prominent in todays society in the arrest and court processes. In this paper, I will explore why such injustice is still occurring and what actions can be taken to minimize stigmatization. I will draw attention to the various forms of injustice within the Canadian criminal justice system. Through analysis of particular cases I will draw attention to the types of discriminatory practice that exist. I will also make recommendation on how to bet ter address the existing racism problems within the current justice system as addressing such mal practices are vital in improving the justice system. Historical Concepts of Race: It is vital to consider the historical background of the racial backgrounds that will be focused on in this paper. It determines the fundamental cause of the problem today that affects many lives. It is imperative to recognize the aspects that will facilitate for a better understanding of the outcomes of cases. In addition this will confirm the challenges minorities have faced are still present today. Mosher (1998) has proven, The analysis of racial inequality in diverse historical contexts allows us to establish a perspective from which to view contemporary problems (p.28). Blacks in Canada As a result of colonialism, Canada has attracted immigrants from all over the world including blacks. In 2006, data collected through surveys concluded the black population increased to over three quarters of a million approximate 783,000 (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). Though the population increased significantly from the earlier years, the representation of blacks within the Canadian population remains at 2.5%. The black population in Canada fails to be equally scatter in population distribution, as a result only concentrated in specific cities. The migration of the black population is diversified from the country of origin with different composition of cultures, values and beliefs. The survey concluded Canadas black population suffers from economic and social disadvantage (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). The progress of multiculturalism in Canada through the colonial revolution significantly affected the black population. Historically dated, the prominent severe practice of slavery of black individuals was practiced in the United Stated and the Caribbean. Nonetheless, Canada also had some sort of involvement. It has been evident in the ownership of slaves by six legislators of Upper Canadas first parliament (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). This illustrates the foundation of collectively placing the black population in social disparity from the beginning. Thus, the impact of disadvantage continues to the present day. The poor treatment of white elites towards the black population often denied the basic rights of individuals. The stigmatization of blacks led to segregation in school as well as public life along with limitations of owning properties (Winks, 2008). The hostile treatment of the white population towards blacks was very explicit in comparison to todays society. Although issues of racial discrimination have been addressed it is still implicitly prominent today. Stereotypical views The historical perspective of the blacks in Canada can further illustrate the root of the problem of society today. The beliefs and stereotypes that have been the first perspective of whites towards the black population have been instilled in individuals continuing to carry those set of beliefs. According to a recent survey, results have shown one third of the Canadian population report being at least slightly racist (Leger, 2007). The mentality that has been created about the black population being socially and economically underprivileged has found a way to make members of society believe they are continually being stigmatized. On the earlier years, whites have always had the upper hand in contrast to blacks, this has implicitly continued by examining the members of the criminal justice system from the police system to the members of the judiciary. As racial discrimination has formed in various ways from the beginning, it has had adverse affects on the black population of todays so ciety and the law. Thus, the mentality from the slavery days have evolved and integrated into the justice system, affecting the method of serving justice to blacks. The issue of racial discrimination in Canada is a controversial topic. In contrast, the most common explicit evidence of racial discrimination is racial profiling evident through anecdotal accounts. The debate in Canada consists of the scepticism of the general public with focus on systemic discrimination that exists in the justice system and if there is equal access to services offered within the Canadian criminal justice system (Wortley, 2003). Canada in comparison to the United States lacks the resources for empirical evidence to further assess the amount of racial discrimination in the justice system. However, the minimal research conducted has evidently illustrated the prevalence of discrimination within the black and First Nation group of minorities. Indigenous First Nations suffered through a devastating history however one may not assume it has been completely stopped. Surprisingly, in the present day the mistreatment of police forces or other authoritative figures have not simply justified fair and equal treatment. Many scholars have attempted to study the relationship of the treatments of the criminal justice system through the communication processes (Roberts, Doob, 1997). Historically, Aboriginals were seen as a barrier to colonization and progress, as an outcome they were subject to unjust treatment and were forced to assimilate into Canadian life. They were also subject to convert from red men to white this was accomplished by forcing them into residential schools where they suffered a tremendous amount of torture (Dickson-Gilmore, 2005). During this process, First nations have been stripped away of culture: they were forced to surrender land and degraded to the reserves while they were prohibited to have an Aboriginal model of family, social life and spirituality (Dickson-Gilmore, 2005). As Indigenous have been rejected culturally, socially and politically it is a contributing factor to why society has stereotypical views. As the mandatory placement of Aboriginals on reserves, it has resulted in the constant use of drugs and alcohol as they are excluded from the rest of society. Aboriginals have suffered through a disadvantaged past from being stripped of all kinds of identity and being put aside into the reserves. It is very easy to stereotypically judge an individual. Players in the criminal justice system are also humans and are aware of the historically disadvantaged past of the First Nations. The assumption all Aboriginals are the same can affect the outcome of cases wherein an Aboriginal is involved. The stigmatization that has been established about the Indigenous continues to prevail in society today as it is evident in the criminal justice system. Media The media has become a significant influence on the general public. From the television shows, movies and news it has managed to instil certain information, perceptions in the heads of its viewers and/or listeners. Prominently, the media will portray all the negative characteristics of a certain race which leads to the creation of stereotypes. Studies have shown the biasness of the Canadian media and the unfairness of media representations (Mahtani, 2001). Considerably, the media is a powerful medium to deliver knowledge to the public, selecting certain images of minorities to govern the publics perspective (Fleras and Kunz, 2001). As a result, pessimistic representation of minorities includes stereotypes and beliefs such as: threatening, deviant, and irrelevant to the construction of the nation. The negative traits of minorities depicted in the media automatically become the everyday perception of the public. It is rare to see minorities on a television show, however if they are fea tured on a show they are depicted as criminals or deviant (Mahtani, 2001). Thus, the images or the actions/role of a minority depicted in the media is considered one sided portrayals or articles become reality in the minds of Canadians (Fleras and Kunz, 2001) in addition to confirmation of the stereotypes already created. The media often creates a picture of poor black men involved in drugs or violence. Chances of a successful black man being featured in a news broadcast have decreased in the likelihood. The media generates a subliminal message of stereotyping black men. Focusing on a particular race stories emphasizing certain characteristics and eventually transfers those characteristics into a social norm (Fleras and Kunz, 2001). In addition, Aboriginals who have claimed the land of Canada primarily are also portrayed as alcoholics and violent individuals facilitating in the general stereotypes. These stereotypes are consumed in individual beliefs including the police and judicial system. According to Scot Wortley and Akwasi Owusu-Bempah (2010) media analyses have depicted Black people in Canada have a heightened chance of being portrayed as criminal offenders rather than victims. The Black population have often complained regarding the news media and other forms of popular culture (film, music, etc.) about the portrayal often enhancing the stereotypes that already exists. This depiction of the particular race usually places a strain on the treatment of the members of the criminal justice system. Scot Worley (2002) has performed extensive research within the Toronto star. In his findings, he discovered almost half of all stories depicting Black people are related to crime and violence, in comparison to 14% of its counterparts of white victims. In addition to the results, he also found that white victims received more media coverage than Black victims. These biases of large mediums affect an individuals sub consciousness. Treatments of minorities According to Nelson (2004), extensive research of the differential treatment of Aboriginals has been ongoing historically to present. A summarization of the results consists of similar cases of confrontations between first nations and the police due to harassment, racism or aggressiveness through force to restrain the fighting of Aboriginal groups for treaty rights and land claims. Government has imposed solutions in an attempt to reduce incarceration rates for First Nations. The method of restorative justice is encouraged to decrease the over representation of Aboriginals in the entire Criminal Justice System (Nelson, 2004). In addition, scholars have also studied the perception of police and interactions with the black community. Henry Hastings (1996) has conducted a research of how criminal activities are racialized resulting in the confirmation of negative perceptions affecting the treatment of blacks in the criminal justice system. Chart above (Wortley Owusu,-Bempah, 2009, Unequal before the law: Immigrant and Racial Minority Perceptions of the Canadian Criminal Justice system: http://www.springerlink.com/content/036768l1221r238m//fulltext.html#Fig2): Percent of respondents who believe that a black person would receive a harsher sentence than a white person convicted of the same crime The chart above is a depiction of the confidence of the general public in the justice system. As previously mentioned, the perceptions of society towards the Black population have not changed. As a result a survey has been conducted based on perception of three major ethnicities: White, Chinese and Black. The public beliefs of mistreating Blacks had forced the police enforcement to implement the idea of designing strategies to eliminate or reduce the belief of targeting racial minorities. An action plan of recruiting minority groups in the police force has been implemented. Evidentially, these anti-racism programs have not been well examined, due to the significant amount of increase still prevalent in this survey. Stenning (2003) has stated, if such efforts are effective, perceptions of racial bias in policing and the courts should have decreased significantly over the past 10 to 15 years. Racial Profiling A prominent form of racial discrimination is racial profiling. Evidence of surveys conducted still find racial profiling to be a common problem. An academic literature definition of racial profiling is defined as: significant racial differences in police stop and search practices, significant racial differences in Customs search and interrogation practice and particular under or sting operation which target specific racial/ethnic communities (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010, p.17). Various studies conducted in the United States, Great Britain and Canada have all concluded that Black people have an increased chance of being stopped, questioned and search by the police (Tanovich, 2006). This issue has been brought to the attention of the Ontario Human Rights Commission in 2003 with a compilation of detailed testimonial from over 800 individuals in Ontario with a majority composition of black felt they have been a victim of racial profiling. If racial profiling exists it is evident that rac ial discrimination also exists and is somewhat visible in the justice system. Racial profiling within in the society by police, at every level of the justice system influences the statistical information of minorities in the Canadian criminal justice system. Players in the Criminal Justice System The explanation of the over representations of black and Aboriginals in the criminal justice system can simply be explained through the thorough analysis of the judicial system. Canada was originally established in a Eurocentric focus presently continuing justifying the flaws of the criminal justice system and the ignorance towards minorities. The limited representation of minority in the judiciary contributes to the factor of the lack of recognition of minority needs. Essentially, it is vital to implement affirmative action in the courts to avoid stigmatization of race (Crenshaw, Gotanda, Peller, 1995). In addition, in the event of final decisions in court, majority of jurors selected are of a white decent while the criminal offender is often black or Aboriginal with programmed stereotypes. As a result, jury decisions often incarcerate blacks and Aboriginals creating the over representations in prisons. By examining the judicial system it is easy to conclude the racial consistency is prominently white males. This reflects not only the European colonization in early years but the current patriarchal society. According to Hamalengwa (2003), a white lawyer had stated, bringing the racial animus in a criminal case will alienate the judge, police, prosecutors and the jury, all of whom are most likely White and will likely ensure a conviction (p.9). The credibility of this statement is accurate as it is a primary source. When the issue of race is raised in the court systems, it is often denied the attention and action for equal justice of minority groups such as Aboriginals and Blacks Police According to Parker et al (2005), there has been sufficient evidence to conclude police have an increased likelihood of making arrests in cases involving whites compared to non white victims as well as scenarios with a white victim and a black offender. These results show that whites are much more favourable within the justice system emphasizing on the higher value placed on them in comparison to blacks. Further analytical examinations of police biasness of whites during arrests have been studied. In Toronto during the period of 1996 throughout 2001 there have been 10,000 arrests involving drug possessions which was composed of 38% of black suspects and 23% whites. All accused persons were taken to the police station for report processes. However accused white individuals were likely to be discharged in contrast to black individuals who were most likely to be detained overnight for a bail hearing. As there is an overwhelming over representation of Aboriginal people in the criminal justice system, over and under policing contribute to these statistics (Rudin, 2005). Over policing refers to the practice of policing targeting people of particular ethnic or racial backgrounds or people who live in particular neighbourhoods (Rudin, 2005, p.1). This results in the police structuring a different approach towards Aboriginals with the assumption they are violent, dangerous and more likely to be involved in criminal activity. In contrast to the over policing, Aboriginals are underrepresented to being victims by police. This a reflection of the government who often disregard the Aboriginal rights claims and ignore the suffering they continue to experience (Rudin, 2005). Though there have been collective efforts to strategically reduce racial bias in the justice system, it is still questionable whether it is actually effective. One of the approaches that has been recently been put in effect is minority recruitment. It is the idea of hiring minorities to diversify policing and the other sectors of the justice system (Stenning, 2003). Results of this strategy have improved in diversifying the police. In 1994, the police force was composed of 6% minority members compared to the significant increase in 2009 to 19% (Wortley McCalla, 2008). Diversity has evidentially been proven to exist as the two out of the four Deputy Chiefs are black as well as the September 2009 graduates reported to have been the most multicultural class of recruits (Wortley Owusu-Bempah, 2010). As the police are creating a racially diversified environment there is no guarantee that minority members are free of racial discrimination in the work force. The problem of racial discrimination will be difficult to completely eradicate, considering the historical aspects of Canada and the existence continuing into the workforce. Police are a vital variable to consider when dealing with the racial background of one of the primary source for arrests and convictions. As mentioned previously, the police force had been historically composed of a majority of white racial background until recently creating bias to those minorities from internalized beliefs. Jurors Critical Race Theory was created in the 1970s acknowledging racism adopting the ideology from the United States. It is a socially constructed concept attempting to show the structure of law including antidiscrimination law accommodating and facilitating racism (Aylward, 1999). The implication of the Critical Race Theory intensifies the application of power within the criminal justice system. Initially, the aims and objectives of the Critical Race Theory emphasizes on race and power. It fundamentally deconstructs society by categorizing racial hierarchies. However, the recognition of racism reproduces inequality, further minimizing minority rights. The concept deconstructs position of minorities while reconstructing juror bias (Aylward, 1999). In the Canadian context critical race theory is often applied to the races that are more prominent to racial discrimination, Blacks and First Nations. Jury Selection In addition, the jury selection process is most likely to reflect the judiciary representation. National Law Journal conducted a study containing a sample of 800 jurors, 42% were White jurors in contrast to the 25% of Black jurors teaming up with the police officers rather than defendant present in the case (Hamalengwa, 2003). In circumstances of cases wherein race is involved, it is often a minority attempting to indict a representative of the criminal justice system such as the police with an all white jury. The study observed that jurors are more biased by empathizing with victims of their own race and lenient of defendants of the same racial background (Hamalengwa, 2003). Thus, to achieve an equal administration of justice it is essential to select a racially mixed jury. In the case of R. v. Williams jury selection depicted the flaws of the criminal justice system. Victor Daniel Williams, an Aboriginal accused of a robbery charge denied accusations. At the primary trial, the judge permitted questions posed to potential jurors. As a result of this, the Crown had applied for a mistrial on the basis of procedural errors and the unfortunate publicity of the jury selection process (R. v. Williams, 1998). At the second trial the judge had dismissed any motion from the accused. In conclusion of this trial the court had admitted to the widespread of discrimination against First Nations within the community. In cases where the defendant believes the jury might have prejudiced towards the particular race such as Aboriginal, the prosecution and defence have the right to challenge potential jurors for cause on the ground of partiality (R. v. Williams, 1998). Questions the defendant may ask the potential jurors whether they have already possess a prejudice towards the racial group altogether if so, if it is possible for the jurors to make decisions without the bias they posses. The case was a lengthy process of arguing why the jurors were questioned as it is presumed that jurors will function without biasness. Counter arguments have stated it if the prejudice of society is widespread how are the jurors able to remove it for the trial defeating the purpose of section 638(1)(b) (R. v. Williams, 1998). As the case concluded, extensive bias continues to uphold against Aboriginals. In contrast, British Columbia and the attending judge held the evidence was not sufficient to determine potential ju rors prejudiced. The R. v. Williams case has depicted the outcome of jury bias. However, this could be further prevented if the jury selection process was racially mixed with different backgrounds and a variety of perspectives. The outcome of the case would differ greatly. This case could be referred back to the stereotypes instilled in individuals. The general public assumes Aboriginals and prisons are constantly correlated. The implication of this stereotype can be further expanded to the uncivilized and lack social and moral order essential in society (R. v. Williams, 1998). In the case of R. v. Williams jury selection depicted the flaws of the criminal justice system. Victor Daniel Williams, an Aboriginal accused of a robbery charge denied accusations. At the primary trial, the judge permitted questions posed to potential jurors. As a result of this, the Crown had applied for a mistrial on the basis of procedural errors and the unfortunate publicity of the jury selection process (R. v. Williams, 1998). At the second trial the judge had dismissed any motion from the accused. In conclusion of this trial the court had admitted to the widespread of discrimination against First Nations within the community. In cases where the defendant believes the jury might have prejudiced towards the particular race such as Aboriginal, the prosecution and defence have the right to challenge potential jurors for cause on the ground of partiality (R. v. Williams, 1998). Questions the defendant may ask the potential jurors whether they have already possess a prejudice towards the racial group altogether if so, if it is possible for the jurors to make decisions without the bias they posses. The case was a lengthy process of arguing why the jurors were questioned as it is presumed that jurors will function without biasness. Counter arguments have stated it if the prejudice of society is widespread how are the jurors able to remove it for the trial defeating the purpose of section 638(1)(b) (R. v. Williams, 1998). As the case concluded, extensive bias continues to uphold against Aborginals. In contrast, British Columbia and the attending judge held the evidence was not sufficient to determine potential jur ors prejudiced. Though, the case itself was based on the conviction of robbery, it is imperative to note and understand the trials by judge and jury as there is an increased likelihood the outcome of the case is based on systemic discriminatory practices. Systemic Discrimination It is not surprising to see the prominent race in Canadian prisons consists of the minority groups that are often faced with obstacles. Both Blacks and Aboriginals have suffered through a disadvantaged history mirroring the result of how they function in society leading them to prison. However, as these groups are prone to committing more criminal activities in comparison to other races, the partial verdicts of judges and jurors are significantly influenced. Hence, it results in the over representation of Blacks and Aboriginals in Canadian prisons. Canadian Prison System The table below illustrates statistics of the composition of the Canadian prison system. It can be concluded through examination of the charts that Aboriginals and Blacks have the greatest amount of incarceration into prisons. The general population of Blacks and Aboriginals composed in society compared to the ratio that are incarcerated have significant differences and make up majority of incarcerated individuals. The over representations of these particular races in the prison system can cause the general population to question the justice system. Inevitably, factors to consider when analyzing this chart include the consideration of the actual crime committed or the injustice of the courts to properly provide justice to offenders due to racial bias or discrimination. R. v. Marshall (1971) Donald Marshall was an average seventeen year old. As a youth, it is more likely to get in trouble with the law for petty crimes such as consumption of alcohol or smoking. He was the typical young man who would break the law and participate in underage drinking and smoking. He was walking down the street and coincidentally had an encounter with one of his friends whom was African Canadian. The two individuals were involved in a conversation until two other gentlemen from across the street decided to ask for a lighter. As youths it is also most likely individuals are more violent. As a result one of the two males had stabbed Marshalls friend resulting in his death the very next day (R. v. Marshall, 1971). Marshall was not arrested long after the incident. Shortly, he was arrested and charged with murder with a three day trial. He was then acquitted as were the police in his arrest. The police had strongly believed Marshall was responsible for his own conviction and miscarriage of justice was visible. As years passed, the man who actually committed the crime was charged with manslaughter sentenced in prison for 3 years. A Royal Commission had identified Marshall as a victim of wrongful convictions. Marshall was then compensated a total amount of $700, 00.00 upon his release for wrongful convictions (R. v. Marshall, 1971). In this case of wrongful convictions, the integrity of police discretion can be questioned. There are many factors that have resulted in the wrongful conviction. Though everyone posses internalized beliefs, the criminal justice system should attempt to avoid partial judgements. In careful investigation and examination of this case, there is a great possibility of avoiding the problem. It is imperative for the criminal justice system to reduce judgements based on colour. Lack of analysis in cases are leading to the over representations of minorities such as Blacks and First Nations in the prison system. Systemic discrimination exists in society and addressing the problem should facilitate in reducing the problem. As the historical perceptions of social disparities of the black and indigenous population of Canada continue to be a factor in being racially discriminated, it is vital to recognize the foundation of systemic discriminatory practices in the Canadian Crimin Emirates Stadium: Project Management Emirates Stadium: Project Management 1.0. Introduction The PMI defines project management as ‘the art of directing and coordinating human and material resources through the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve pre-determined goals of scope, cost, time, quality and participant satisfaction (Smith 2002) â€Å"Through the project management process, business needs and requirements are transformed into deliverables or outputs the project will provide to meet; this transformation process is made up application of constraints such as time, cost, quality, motivation and application of project management tools and technique.†(APM 2002) According to Dinsmore, and Cabanis-Brewin (2006), project management processes are grouped into the following areas: they are initiating, planning, executing, monitoring and controlling and closing. A good project manager must be skilled in applying this knowledge and be able to integrate these activities as the project moves through its life cycle. The aim of this report is to critically evaluate the project management challenges and the management approaches in the construction of Emirate Stadium described in the groups presentation. Some of the challenges identified in group discussions includes; time constraints, planning approval, design and site constraints, procurement path, organizational/stakeholders management..This report compares some of the identified challenges with the established best practice in project management. The second part of the report is develop guideline for the 2012 Olympic Stadium which will include an overview of the difference between managing a single, simple project and a project that is part of a large complex programme of work, also to outline the project management challenges of the 2012 Olympic Stadium. 2.0 The Emirates Stadium 2.1 Background of the Emirate Stadium complex The need to generate additional revenue from the football event and also to provide a state- of the- art facilities for the fans is identified as the requirement for a new football stadium to replace the existing one .by Arsenal Football Club The Emirate Stadium is located in Holloway in London Borough of Islington town. The stadium is located in a high density residential area therefore restricting feasibility of increase capacity. Over 2000 new homes were built in Islington as part of the project. Two of the key points in the club brief to design team were for the pitch to be as good as Highbury, and to create an exhilarating stadium atmosphere through the design. Over 2,500 legal documents were signed in order to give the project full clearance. The overall project put at about 390million pounds. . It was opened in July 2006, with seated capacity of 60,432 making it the fifth largest football stadium in the UK 2.2 Main Project management challenges identified by different groups Based on the group presentations some of the main project management challenges identified include: * Time constraints, * Planning and consent approval, * Design and site constraints, * Procurement path, * Organizational/stakeholders management * Document control 2.3 Some of the management approaches considered by the group include; * Involving contractor in early stage of the process * Design and Build contract * Site investigation * Collaborating planning and possible overlap during construction to meet deadline * Several procurement path * Involvement of the stakeholders * Redesigning to suit the shape of the site * Understanding of the scope of the project. 2.4 Evaluation of project management challenges and approach in the group work 2.4.1. Involving contractor in early stage of the process. This can help in integrating the contractors idea and expertise in the planning and design process, although, Austin, Baldwin and Wasket (2000) identified that it might result in uneven design workload while they wait for consultant and other contractors to develop their own design, this result in the client paying for retainer while the project is yet to start, thereby increasing the cost of the project. Therefore it might be beneficial to delay the introduction of contractor early 2.4.2 Time constraints It can be seen that in the case of Emirate stadium, delivering the project on time is very crucial; to enable the club to meet up with football season, Harrison and Lock (2004) stated that delivery a project on time is an extremely important objective to client as well as avoiding the risk of being skimped in respect of quality and reliability of being close to the budget but most time all the objective of the project cannot be met. 2.4.3 Planning and consent approval. Two sets of people are involved in planning; they the client and the contractor .Obtaining the consent approval and satisfying planning requirement as well as defining the project goals, ensure availability of funds and selecting the design is the primary responsibility of the owner, this is one aspect that group presentations did not consider. On the side of the contractor, proper planning and scheduling contributed to their delivering the project on time. 2.4.4 Contract /procurement strategy The contract strategy used in the construction of Emirate Stadium is identified as Design and Build. The type of contract is assumed to be the best when time constraint is considered, Rowlison and McDermontt (1999) reported that Design and Build approach involving overlapping of design and construction phases leads to economics and fast project, though the client has to limit the variation to minimum , finds evaluation difficult and also have to make early decisions. However, Aritua, Bower and Turner (2006) reported that Design and Build procurement options has been criticized for being cost rather than design quality driven. Chan and Yu-Ann 2005 identified design liability as the most important practical problem encounters in design and build system. 2.5 Best practice in project management The best practices in project management are those practices that are generally agreed that their application in the project has shown to enhance the chances of success over a wide range of projects. (PMBOK, 2004) Atkinson (1999) queried, if successful project management means doing something right, that result in a project which was implemented on time, within cost and to a quality parameters requested, but which is not used by the customers, not liked by the sponsors and does not seem to provide either improved effectiveness or efficiency for the organization Kerzner (2006) affirmed that best practices in project management are those actions or activities undertaken by the company or individual that led to a sustained competitive advantage, it can be learned from both failure and success. Defining project objective at the outset and establishing relative importance of these objectives is crucial (Smith 2002). The Primary objectives of the project are usually measured in terms of time cost and quality, whilst it may be possible to meet one or two of the objectives, meeting all three of them is almost impossible. (Smith, 2002). However, the general knowledge, skills and processes described in general agreement documents of project management should not always be apply uniformly to all projects, the project manager and the team is responsible for determining the appropriate process and tailored it down to suit the specific project, because every project is unique on its own. (PMBOK, 2004) 3.0 The 2012 Olympic Stadium complex 3.1 The background of the 2010 London Olympic Stadium. The 2010 London Olympic Stadium is located at the south of Olympic park Stratford, East London. The EDAW consortium working with Arup and Atkins was appointed by Olympic delivery Authority (ODA) to develop the master plan and the design of the Olympic Park, while the design of the Olympic venue or the Athletes Village was tendered separately. In 2007, The Olympic Delivery Authority Signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the consortium known as Team Stadium to design and build the Olympic Stadium. The consortium is made up the designer, Hoks sport. Main contractor Sir Robert McAlphine, structural engineer Burro Happold, service engineer and landscape designer. The project was estimated at 498miliion pound. The stadium consists of a lower tier of 25000 permanent. Seats set into the landscape with an upper tier of 55000 temporary seats. The sunken bowl built into the ground will contain the field of play and lower permanent seating. However, facilities for athletes within the Stadium include changing rooms, medical support facilities and an 80m warm-up track. Spectator services, refreshments and merchandise outlets will be located outside the venue on a ‘podium that will surround the Stadium, rather than being located within the Stadium itself. Constructions began three months ahead of schedule and it is expected to be completed by 2011. In addition, construction works in other parts of the Olympic village is still on-going, while some are close to completion, others are yet to start. This is based on the planned milestone schedule set out by the Olympic Delivery Authority., According to the chairman of the Olympic Delivery Authority, some completion date has been moved further, this is to avoid the venue been completed and standing idle in the years before Olympic, as this call for additional cost of maintenance. (Culled from official site of 2012 Olympic). 3.2. The outline of the Olympic Stadium â€Å"People will be able to see with their own eyes a stadium which is designed to be different: an innovative and sustainable design which uses temporary elements to meet a complex brief, a stadium built for both Games and legacy†.(Olympic Delivery Authority Chairman John Armitt). The design of London 2012 Olympic Stadium is much more than dazzling or ‘out of this world Architectural structure that is norm of modern day Olympic stadium. â€Å"The emphasis in the design has been on minimizing the quantity of material, whilst still producing the required performance, ensuring the sustainability of the stadium after the games give rise for incorporation of some temporary structures. However, design and construction of such large and complex project need effective and efficient management to deliver the agreed scope of the project. The management approach in multi-projects is generally different from single project. Flexibility management process with explicitly define rules and procedure can be a source of success with large complex project. (Dietrich and Lehtonen 2005). Baccarni (1996) defined project complexity as project that consists of varied interrelated parts and be operationalised in terms of differentiation and interdependency .On the hand Coffman believed that complex project comprises of subset of project that are composed of so many different facets that no individual or small team possesses all of the knowledge, experience, or skills required to design and implement them. Considering 2012 Olympic Stadium as a part of Olympic park which consists of interrelated and multidisciplinary projects that demand exceptional level of management and system approach which will be described to be inappropriate for a single project Looking at the technical and organizational complexity of the Olympic park, it is clear that it requires involvement of lots of multi-disciplinary contractors, sub contractors, supply chain, trade, different technology and specialties. Williams (1999) sees technical complexity as a three-fold concept: the variety of task as the degree of interdependencies within these tasks, and the instability of the â€Å"assumptions upon which the Tasks are based.† Complex project requires proper structuring and scheduling in terms of Work Break down Structure and further down into related bid package for the qualified construction firms .to bid .For effective organizational management, the services of a planner, scheduler, contract administrato r, legal adviser, procurement engineer, accountant will be require in a complex project unlike a single project where all the task will be handle by the project management.. Moreover, managing a large, multi-projects environment or complex projects is refers by some author as programme management, Fern(1991), stated that the common theme of programme management can be identified as the co-ordination of projects to gain benefits that it would not be possible to obtain were the projects managed independently. He also defined programme management as the coordinated support, planning, prioritization and monitoring of projects to meet changing business needs. Pellegrinelli(1997) pointed out that programme management is not same as multi-project management, that the nature and practice of program management are much more than resource management though management of scares resources or the establishment of appropriate information system is identified as core elements of programme management. Fern (1991), proposed single objective programme model as one of the generic models to describe how organizations define and practice programme management. According to Fe rn (1991), programme with single objective are often called macro-project or simple project which consists of large numbers of project which run concurrently, often employ large numbers of contractors and can benefit from programme management techniques. Furthermore, the differences between managing a simple project and a project that is part of a large complex programme, can be identify in the description of project and program by Pellegrinelli(1997) and Fern (1991), which states that project is a group of related task(activities) which together satisfy one or more objectives, while programme is a frame work for grouping existing projects (or defining new projects) and for focusing all the activities required to achieve a set of major benefits. Some of features of managing a simple single project include project manager been responsible for directing and coordinating human and material resources throughout the life of a project by using modern management techniques to achieve predetermined objectives, while a large complex programme involves having a programme manager facilitates the interaction of other managers and team manager responsible for work package. In addition, a single simple project have a set objective and self dependent for delivery, which entails, ensuring that trade-offs between scope, quality, time and cost are satisfactory and acceptable(Wideman,1990), while multi-project is interrelated and interdependent with other project in the programme. Significant increase in the number and independence of element between disparate project within a programme raise structural complexity to a level higher than that of single projects (Blismas et al 2004) A single project has a linear life cycle and fixed duration in which performance of the project is measured; while in multi-project duration depends on the delivery of the entire project in the programme Single project involves one main contractor with few sub contractors while multi-project involves large number of contractor, sub contractors and supply chain. Other features of a single project includes managing risk and uncertainties in line with the project scope and objectives, abbreviated planning process and Single client management In addition, scheduling and resources allocated is more complex than that of a single project the need and priority of a particular project is considered, detailed communication, organization and strategic management, multi-stakeholders management, development of software for project planning/scheduling and system control. 3.3. GUIDELINES FOR 2012 OLYMPIC STADIUM The purpose of these guidelines is to help in organizing, planning and control 2012 Olympic Stadium to achieve the project objectives. The guideline covers the life cycle of the project from initiation, planning, execution, monitoring and controlling and closure of the project. 3.3.1 Initiation * This is the beginning of the planning phase, the need is identified, resources, preliminary drawing and block diagram is produce, analysis including budget estimation, project charter including cost, task, and deliverable schedule, scope is defined and impact assessment initiated, conceptual design created followed by detailed design and planning 3.3.2 Project planning This include developing management Plan, scope planning and definition, creating a Work Breakdown Structure (WBS), activity definition and sequencing, Resource estimating and allocation, Estimating budget and cost control, activity duration estimating, schedule development, human resource and communication planning, risk management planning, contracting, purchases plan (PMBOK, 2004) * Management Plan: is necessary for the development of preliminary project scope statement, project management processes, environmental factors and organizational process assets. (PMBOK, 2004) Scope planning and definition is essential for creating project scope management plan that documents how the project scope will be defined, verified and controlled and also the creation and definition of WBS. Secondly development of detailed scope statement as basis for future project decisions. (PMBOK, 2004) * Work Breakdown Structure (WBS): â€Å"Developing WBS with a corresponding project organizations and functional responsibility chart (Wideman,1990) Establishing the programme work breakdown structure and breaking it into work package for contract purposes†. (Wideman,1990) Activity definition and sequencing is crucial in identifying specific activities that needs to be performed to achieve project deliverable and also identifying and documenting dependencies among schedule activities. It contains the activity list and attributes, milestone list, requested change and approved change requests project schedule network diagram. (PMBOK, 2004) * Resource estimating and allocation is important in estimating the type and quantities of resources required by each work package * Estimating budget and cost control: Each work package is treated essentially as a separate and autonomous effort requiring resources and input from variety of source (Clough et al, 2000).†At the earliest possible time, an acceptable program budget breakdown must be established, which properly reflects the best estimate of the work required to achieve the overall project objectives. This will form the basis for regular cost monitoring and reporting† (Wideman, 1990) * Contracting, purchases plan: Laws and regulations will require public bidding procedure in the government owned project. Advertisements of the project are required to ensure that all contractors who might have interest are offered equal opportunity to bid. A number of work packages may be assembled into a contract package for procurement purposes(Wideman,1990) Type of contract strategy and procurement route to be use and allocation of risk of project is identified * Human resource and communication planning: this is necessary in identifying and documenting roles and responsibilities and reporting relationships, secondly. Information and communication needs of the projects stakeholders are determined. (PMBOK, 2004) * Risk management: The purpose of risk management process is to make effective project management decisions about what happens on the project in future. This consist of risk source identification, risk impact assessment and analysis and managerial response to risk in the context of the project (Smith, Merna, Jobling, 2006) 3.3.3 Execution stage This involves coordinating people and resources, integrating and performing other project activities. Some of the activities of this stage include Directing and managing project execution, performing quality assurance, acquiring and developing project team, information distribution. Selection of consultant, supply chain contractors and sub contractors. (PMBOK, 2004)  · Directing and managing project execution. This process is necessary for directing the various technical and organizational interfaces that exist in the project to execute the work defined in the project management plan. Some of the activities here consist of approving corrective and preventive actions, approving change request and defect repair, validating defect repair, administrative closure procedure. (PMBOK, 2004)  · Acquiring and developing project team: this is essential for obtaining human resources needed to deliver the project and also for improving the competencies and interaction of team members to enhance project performance. (PMBOK, 2004)  · Information distribution: design and foster intensive, open and timely communication within the project stakeholders. Employ multiple channels and mediums, in particular modern information technology and extensive face-to face interactions. Prepare systems that prescribe for most processes simple and brief procedures for flexibility of details. Restrict optimization to the essential. * Selection of consultant, supply chain contractors and sub contractors. This process is essential for reviewing bids and proposal, selecting from among the potential contractors and negotiating a written contract, it also entail risk allocation between the client and the contractor. (PMBOK, 2004) 3.3.4 Monitoring and controlling This process is crucial for collecting, measuring and dissemination performance information, and assessing measurements and trends to effect process improvement Integration and ongoing progress is monitored against agreed milestones, results reported in accordance with mechanisms identified in the communication plan.Secondly monitoring changes and recommending preventive action in anticipation of possible problem is an important element of monitoring and controlling (PMBOK, 2004) 3.3.5 Health and safety and environment Maintenance of health and safety on the site is vital for a successful project delivery. Mandatory personal protective equipment for all the workers on site is necessary Also all the site machine and equipment should be working properly. Workers should be properly trained to use the equipments. 3.3.6 Project closure: this involves closing of project and contract closure. It is necessary for finalizing all activities, completing and settling each contract, including the resolution of any open items and closing each contract applicable to the project. (PMBOK, 2004 3.4 Outline of Project Management Challenges 2012 Olympic Stadium Some of the project management challenges: Design constraints: * This involves getting an aesthetics design which depicts legacy of modern day and world class Olympics, as well as being iconic, environmentally friendly and sustainable in terms of future use and maintenance. * Time constraints; Meeting deadline for the project for the Olympics events is very crucial and one is of the major indicator of measuring success or failure of the project. * Site constraints The soil/site ground is poor from engineering and environmental viewpoint. Owing to past use of the site which resulted in uneven settlement that can only support very light construction. Site is located between two branches of River Lea an old embankment containing sewage artery. The above constraints call for redesigning to suit the site location and environment. * Complexity of the project The multi-project nature of the project involves managing large numbers of subcontractors and supply chain. The construction of the stadium is just one component in the Olympic park, * Resource allocation and scheduling Efficient allocation of resources in multi-project environment is a major challenge facing the programme manager, as this can lead to success or failure of the projects. * Global recession and price inflation The world economic crisis of 2009 is a major challenge for the project, as this will cause price inflation for goods and services required for the project. The initial project estimate will no longer be feasible. * Stakeholders management The project has different level of stakeholder. They include the financier, the host community, the supporters, the critics, the press and the general public. * Project Co-ordination and document control.. The complexity of the project comprises large number of document which might have minor and major changes from the initial design that need to be communicated to people involve with the project. * Logistics Challenges Transportation of huge numbers of workers and materials to the site using the existing means of transportation, amid the busy city of London. * Health and Safety Maintaining safety in the site is a major challenge in construction site with large number of workers and ensuring that all contractors adhere to the health and safety rule in the site. 3.5 Conclusion The facts remains that projects are distinctive and unique in their own way. Project life-cycle as well as their requirements is different from each other. What worked for one organization in a particular project might not work for another; it all depends on the organizational culture and values, project environment, interpersonal skill, etc. The general guideline as contained in the Project Management Body of knowledge is only to serve as a guide that needs to be tailored down to suit a particular project. Also it can be seen that project management is more of a practical discipline than theoretical, this can be deduce from the uniqueness of every projects, because change is inherent in any project. There must be a change from the laid down planned and schedule strategy, change therefore cannot be eliminated, most especially in construction because of the project uncertainty, it is expected that plan must change. The ability of the project manager to apply the principles of risk management and improve effective change management will determine result of the project. 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